PHRASE vs CLAUSE

A. PHRASE

Phrase (frasa) adalah sekelompok kata (2 kata atau lebih) yang dapat difungsikan sebagai noun (kata benda), sebagai verb (kata kerja), sebagai adjective (kata sifat), atau sebagai adverb (kata keterangan). Dengan perkecualian pada absolute phrase, phrase tidak memiliki subject.

Sebuah phrase dapat mengandung: phrase + klas kata tertentu. Sebagai contoh, “adjective phrase + noun” akan membentuk noun phrase; “noun phrase + adjective” akan membentuk adjective phrase, dst.

1. Tipe-Tipe Phrase

Penamaan phrase pada umumnya berdasarkan headword (kata kunci) yang menyusun phrase tersebut. Headword ini biasanya terletak di awal phrase atau di akhir phrase atau kadang-kadang di tengah phrase.

Berdasarkan headword-nya, tipe-tipe phrase dalam bahasa Inggris antara lain:

a. Noun Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa noun, yang diletakkan di akhir atau di tengah phrase. Noun phrase dapat diawali oleh article (a, an, the), demonstrative (this, that, these, those), modifier (some, any, dst), atau oleh adjective pronoun (my, your, his, dst).

Contoh:

• an extremely fast runner.
• this bouquet of roses
• my fiancée.
• the laptop.
• his sister.
• the substance in this bottle
• my sister’s room

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya.

b. Gerundive (Gerund) Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headwordnya berupa gerund, yang diletakkan di awal phrase. Gerund phrase pada umumnya diakhiri oleh noun.

Contoh:

• reading a book.
• playing chess.
• drinking beer.
• stealing my book.

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya. Di reading a book, “a book” itu sendiri adalah noun phrase, yang menjadi direct object dari “reading”, sedangkan di stealing my book “my book” adalah noun phrase yang menjadi direct object dari “stealing”.

c. Infinitive Phrase,yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa infinitive, yang diletakkan di awal phrase. Infinitive phrase pada umumnya diakhiri oleh noun.

Contoh:

• to play chess
• to buy that red car
• to solve this mathematics problem

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya. “that red car” dan “this mathematics problem” adalah noun phrase.

d. Verb Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa verb, yang diletakkan di akhir phrase. Verb phrase diawali oleh auxiliary. Bentuk-bentuk verb phrase, antara lain:

• Be + verb-ing/verb3
• Has/have/had + verb3
• Has/have/had + been + verb-ing/verb3
• Modal + verb1
• Modal + be + verb-ing/verb3
• Modal + have + verb3
• Modal + have + been +verb-ing/verb, dst.

Contoh:

• am typing.
• has passed
• will see.
• will have graduated. dst.

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya.

e. Phrasal Verb, yaitu “verb + preposition/adverb”.

Contoh:

• looked after.
• going out with.
• look forward to.

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya.

f. Adverbial (Adverb) Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa adverb, yang diletakkan di akhir phrase. Adverbial phrase diawali oleh adverb. Adverb yang posisinya di depan dan yang menerangkan adverb di belakangnya disebut intensifier.

Contoh:

• very quickly
• extremely fast
• almost never

g. Prepositional Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa adverb. Prepositional phrase diawali oleh preposition, dan pada umumnya diakhiri oleh noun.

Contoh:

• into the woods
• on the table
• at home
• on time
• in the morning

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya.

h. Adjectival (Adjective) Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa adjective. Letak headword-nya pada umumnya di akhir phrase, yang diawali oleh adverb. Kadang-kadang headword-nya diletakkan di awal phrase, yang biasanya diterangkan oleh adjective yang lain.

Contoh:

• extremely toxic
• full of dolls
• extremely fast

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya.

i.  Participial Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa participle, baik present participle (i.e. verb-ing) maupun past pasticiple (i.e. verb3), yang diletakkan diawal phrase. Participial phrase selalu berfungsi sebagai adjective.

Contoh:

• breast-feeding her baby
• calling you
• stormed by gun fire

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya.

j. Appositive Phrase, yaitu phrase yang headword-nya berupa appositive (Appositive adalah noun atau pronoun yang difungsikan untuk menggantikan noun atau pronoun). Appositive phrase ini merupakan hasil reduksi dari non-restrictive clause; selain yang diawali oleh participle.

Contoh:

• my dog
• the English teacher
• the ones I wore last night

NOTE: Kata yang dicetak tebal adalah headword-nya.

2. Penggunaan Phrase dalam Kalimat

a. Phrase sebagai Noun.

Phrase yang dapat difungsikan sebagai noun (baik sebagai subject maupun sebagai object (direct object, indirect object, atau object dari preposition), antara lain:

- Noun Phrase.

Contoh:

• He is an extremely fast runner.
• I will send this bouquet of roses to my fiancée.
• He bought the laptop for his sister.
• The substance in this bottle is extremely toxic.
• My sister’s room is full of dolls.

- Gerundive (Gerund) Phrase.

Contoh:

• Reading a book is her hobby.
• I love playing chess.
• He stopped drinking beer.
• He didn’t confess to stealing my book.

- Infinitive Phrase.

Contoh:

• I want to play chess now.
• He decided to buy that red car.
• To solve this mathematics problem needs three equations.

- Prepositional Phrase.

Contoh:

• In the morning is a prepositional phrase.
• From this moment is a song sung by Shaina Twain.

b. Phrase sebagai Verb.

Phrase yang dapat difungsikan sebagai verb, antara lain:

-Verb Phrase

Contoh:

• I am typing this comment.
• Andi has passed the exam
• We will see you again.
• Susan will have graduated by August this year. dst.

- Phrasal verb.

Contoh:

• My grandparents looked after me until I was 6 years old.
• She has been going out with him since they met three years ago.
• I look forward to seeing you soon.

c. Phrase sebagai Adverb.

Phrase yang dapat difungsikan sebagai adverb, antara lain:

- Adverbial phrase

Contoh:

• She runs very quickly.
• The thief disappeared into the woods extremely fast.
• He almost never comes on time.

-  Prepositional Phrase:

yang dapat dapat difungsikan sebagai adverb of place (keterangan tempat) dan adverb of time (keterangan waktu).

Contoh:

• The thief disappeared into the woods extremely fast. (adv. of place)
• The food on the table looked delicious. (adv. of place)
• I am at home now. (adv. of place)
• He almost never comes on time. (adv. of time)
• They left in the morning. (adv. of time)

d. Phrase sebagai Adjective.

Phrase yang dapat difungsikan sebagai adjective, antara lain:

- Adjective Phrase.

Contoh:

• The substance in this bottle is extremely toxic.
• My sister’s room is full of dolls.
• He is an extremely fast runner.

- Participial Phrase.

Contoh:

• The mother breast-feeding her baby over there is running out of money.
• I think the girl calling you likes you.
• All people stormed by gun fire in that building were found dead.

NOTE: Participial phrase ini merupakan reduksi dari adjective clause (tidak termasuk appositive phrase).

- Appositive Phrase.

Contoh:

• Robby, my dog, is very big.
• Mr. Smith, the English teacher, is from Canada.
• I can’t find the jeans, the ones I wore last night.

B. CLAUSE

Clause (klausa) adalah serangkaian/sekelompok  kata yang sekurang-kurangnya memiliki subject dan predicate. Clause pada umumnya diawali oleh relative pronoun, tetapi relative pronoun ini sering dihilangkan. Selain diawali oleh relative pronoun, clause juga dapat diawali oleh conjunction.

Berdasarkan ketergantungan terhadap clause yang lain, clause dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu independent clause (klausa bebas) dan dependent clause (klausa tidak bebas). Sebuah independent clause dapat berdiri sendiri menjadi sebuah kalimat, sedangkan dependent clause tidak. Dependent clause selalu membutuhkan independent clause.

Berdasarkan fungsinya, dependent clause (atau disebut juga subordinate clause) dapat dibedakan menjadi: noun clause, adjective clause, dan adverb clause

1. Noun Clause, yaitu klausa yang difungsikan sebagai noun.

• I love how you love me.
• It is important that we help one another.
• Have I told you lately that I love you?

NOTE: Selengkapnya silakan baca topik: Noun Clauses.

2. Adjective Clause (atau relative clause) adalah klausa yang difungsikan sebagai adjective. Ada dua tipe adjective clause, yaitu: restrictive clause dan non-restrictive clause.

Contoh restrictive clause:

• The mother who is breast-feeding her baby over there is running out of money.
• I think the girl who called you likes you.
• All people who were stormed by gun fire in that building were found dead.

Contoh non-restrictive clause:

• Robby, which is my dog, is very big.
• Mr. Smith, who is the English teacher, is from Canada.
• I can’t find the jeans, which are the ones I wore last night.

NOTE: Topik khusus untuk adjective belum diposting. Untuk sementara silakan baca Penggunaan WHO, WHOM, dan WHOSE dan Penggunaan WHICH.

3. Adverb Clause, yaitu klausa yang difungsikan sebagai adverb.

Contoh:

• My grandparents looked after me until I was 6 years old.
• She has been going out with him since they met three years ago.
• You say it best when you say nothing at all.

Source: swarabhaskara.com

Morphology

Defition:

The branch of linguistics (and one of the major components of grammar) that studies word structures, especially in terms of morphemes. 

Observations:

• "The term 'morphology' has been taken over from biology where it is used to denote the study of the forms of plants and animals. . . . It was first used for linguistic purposes in 1859 by the German linguist August Schleicher (Salmon 2000), to refer to the study of the form of words. In present-day linguistics, the term 'morphology' refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and of the systematic form-meaning correspondences between words. . . .
  
  "The notion 'systematic' in the definition of morphology given above is important. For instance, we might observe a form difference and a corresponding meaning difference between the English noun ear and the verb hear. However, this pattern is not systematic: there are no similar word pairs, and we cannot form new English verbs by adding h- to a noun."
  (Geert E. Booij, The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology, 2nd ed., Oxford Univ. Press, 2007)

• "For English, [morphology] means devising ways of describing the properties of such disparate items as a, horse, took, indescribable, washing machine, and antidisestablishmentarianism. A widely recognized approach divides the field into two domains: lexical or derivational morphology studies the way in which new items of vocabulary can be built up out of combinations of elements (as in the case of in-describ-able); inflectional morphology studies the ways words vary in their form in order to express a grammatical contrast (as in the case of horses, where the ending marks plurality)."
  (David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003)

• "The distinction between words and lexemes provides the basis for the division of morphology into two branches: inflectional morphology and lexical word-formation.
  
  "Inflectional morphology deals with the inflectional forms of various lexemes. It has something of the character of an appendix to the syntax, the major component of the grammar. Syntax tells us when a lexeme may or must carry a certain inflectional property, while inflectional morphology tells us what form it takes when it carries that inflectional property.
  
  "Lexical word-formation, by contrast, is related to the dictionary. It describes the processes by which new lexical bases are formed and the structure of complex lexical bases, those composed of more than one morphological element. The traditional term is simply 'word-formation.'"
  (Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002)

 Morpheme

A meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word (such as dog) or a word element (such as the -s at the end of dogs) that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts.

• "Morphemes can be divided into two general classes. Free morphemes are those which can stand alone as words of a language, whereas bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes. Most roots in English are free morphemes (for example, dog, syntax, and to), although there are a few cases of roots (like -gruntle as in disgruntle) that must be combined with another bound morpheme in order to surface as an acceptable lexical item. . . .
  
  "Free morphemes can be further subdivided into content words and function words. Content words, as their name suggests, carry most of the content of a sentence. Function words generally perform some kind of grammatical role, carrying little meaning of their own. One circumstance in which the distinction between function words and content words is useful is when one is inclined to keep wordiness to a minimum; for example, when drafting a telegram, where every word costs money. In such a circumstance, one tends to leave out most of the function words (like to, that, and, there, some, and but), concentrating instead on content words to convey the gist of the message."
  (Steven Weisler and Slavoljub P. Milekic, Theory of Language. MIT Press, 1999)

• "A word like 'house' or 'dog' is called a free morpheme because it can occur in isolation and cannot be divided into smaller meaning units. . . . The word 'quickest' . . . is composed of two morphemes, one bound and one free. The word 'quick' is the free morpheme and carries the basic meaning of the word. The 'est' makes the word a superlative and is a bound morpheme because it cannot stand alone and be meaningful."
  (Donald G. Ellis, From Language to Communication. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999)

• "There are two basic types of morphemes: unbound and bound. Unbound or free-standing morphemes are individual elements that can stand alone within a sentence, such as <cat>, <laugh>, <look>, and <box>. They are essentially what most of us call words. Bound morphemes are meaning-bearing units of language, such as prefixes and suffixes, that are attached to unbound morphemes. They cannot stand alone.
  
  "Their attachment modifies the unbound morphemes in such things as number or syntactic category. Adding the bound morpheme <s> to the unbound morpheme <cat> changes the noun's number; the addition of the <ed> to <laugh> changes tense. Similarly, the addition of <er> to <run> changes the verb to a noun."
  (Stephen Kucer and Cecilia Silva, Teaching the Dimensions of Literacy. Routledge, 2006)

• "Linguistics recognizes two classes of bound morphemes. The first class is called inflectional morphemes and their influence on a base word is predictable. Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical class of words by signaling a change in number, person, gender, tense, and so on, but they do not shift the base form into another word class. When 'house' becomes 'houses,' it is still a noun even though you have added the plural morpheme 's.' . . .
  
  "Derivational morphemes constitute the second class of morphemes and they modify a word according to its lexical and grammatical class. They result in more profound changes on base words. The word 'style' is a noun, but if I make it 'stylish,' then it is an adjective. In English, derivational morphemes include suffixes (e.g., 'ish,' 'ous,' 'er,' 'y,' 'ate,' and 'able') and prefixes (e.g., 'un,' 'im,' 're,' and 'ex')."
  (Donald G. Ellis, From Language to Communication. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999)

Sentences: Simple, Compound, and Complex

Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be difficult to read and hard to understand.  
 
This page contains definitions of simple, compound, and complex sentences with many simple examples.  The purpose of these examples is to help the ESL/EFL learner to identify sentence basics including identification of sentences in the short quizzes that follow.   After that, it will be possible to analyze more complex sentences varieties.  

SIMPLE SENTENCE
A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green.  

A. Some students like to study in the mornings. B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon. C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

The three examples above are all simple sentences.  Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb.  Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs.  

COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in red. 

A.  I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.  B.  Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.  C.  Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.

The above three sentences are compound sentences.  Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it.  Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses.  Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators.  In sentence B, which action occurred first?  Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping.  In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first.  In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping."  How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses?  What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence? 

COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red.

A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.  B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow. D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong.
Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma.  The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there.  In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the sentence.  

COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause.  The subjects, verbs, and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in these sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined. 

A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics. B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf. C. The house which AbrahAM  Lincoln was born in is still standing. D. The town where I grew up is in the United States.

Adjective Clauses are studied in this site separately, but for now it is important to know that sentences containing adjective clauses are complex.

source: www.eslbee.com

The Noun Phrase (or noun group) in English

Two simple "rules" govern the use of the noun group in English.

1) The essential parts of a noun group
Unless a noun is used in a generalising sense (see articles), a noun group consists or at least the following elements: a determiner and a noun.
    A determiner is one of the following: an article (the, a, an, some, any), a quantifier (no, few, a few, many, etc.), a possessive (my, your, whose, the man's, etc.), a demonstrative (this, that, these, those), a numeral (one, two, three etc.) or a question word (which, whose, how many, etc.).

     Except in some very rare cases, a noun can only be preceded by ONE determiner:

   Examples: the man, some women, a few dogs, your horse, the man's horse* , that car, whose money,  how many bottles?
     (In this example, the man's horse* there appear to be two determiners before horse, but in fact there is only one: the determiner before horse is the man, and the article the is the determiner of the word  man.)


2) Other parts of a noun group.
A noun group can also contain one or more modifiers; a modifier is an adjective, an adjectival phrase, a secondary noun, a prepositional phrase or a relative clause.
The principal noun in a noun group is called the head noun.

• Adjectives are placed before the head noun: as in the Great Gatsby
     (Click here for ► How to place adjectives in the right order)
• Adjective phrases usually come before the head noun:  as in:
      a black-and-white striped vest
      a rather tight-fitting dress
• Secondary nouns behave exactly like adjectives, and  come before the head noun:
   a beer glass,  the police inspector,  a London bus
• Prepositional phrases and relative clauses follow the head noun, as in:
     the students in our class   or  the girl who gave me her phone-number.

Put all this together, and we get a complex noun group, such as:

   The nice old-fashioned police inspector with white hair, who was drinking his beer, was Mr. Morse.

3 Some common exceptions
Sometimes an adjective or an adjectival phrase will follow the noun, or appear to do so. There are three cases that need to be noted:

• A very few adjectives always follow the noun: concerned (in the sense of "being talked about"), and involved (in the sense of "participating", or "being present") are the two common ones.
• Other participial adjectives (such as left, remaining, missing) appear to be used as adjectives that follow the noun; in reality, they are elliptical forms of a relative clause that has become reduced to a single word.
• Adjectives follow the noun when the adjectives themselves are post-modified (defined) by a following phrase.

Examples.
     There's been an outbreak of flu, but there are only fifteen people concerned
     After the fight, the police arrested the men involved.
      Oh look ! there is only one chocolate left !!
      We can't go yet !! There are still three people missing. 
      There was a crowd bigger than last year.

source: linguapress.com

lexeme

Definition:

The fundamental unit of the lexicon (or word stock) of a language. Some lexemes (such as put up with) consist of more than one word.

Etymology:

From the Greek, "word, speech"

Examples and Observations:

• "A lexeme is a unit of lexical meaning, which exists regardless of any inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain. Thus, fibrillate, rain cats and dogs, and come in are all lexemes, as are elephant, jog, cholesterol, happiness, put up with, face the music, and hundreds of thousands of other meaningful items in English. The headwords in a dictionary are all lexemes."
  (David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
• "In many cases it makes no difference whether we take a syntactic or a lexical perspective. Lexemes such as the and and are invariable, i.e., there is only one word corresponding to each. Also invariable are lexemes like efficiently: although more efficiently is in some respects like harder, it is not a single word, but a sequence of two, and hence efficiently and more efficiently are not forms of a single lexeme. Variable lexemes, by contrast, are those which have two or more forms. Where we need to make clear that we are considering an item as a lexeme, not a word, we will represent it in bold italics. Hard, for example, represents the lexeme which has hard and harder--and also hardest--as its forms. Similarly are and is, along with be, been, being, etc., are forms of the lexeme be. . . . A variable lexeme is thus a word-sized lexical item considered in abstraction from grammatical properties that vary depending on the syntactic construction in which it appears."
  (Rodney Huddleston and Geoffroy Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002)

Pronunciation: LECK-seem

source: grammar.about.com